Andrea's Literature Review

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Spiritual Learning

Andrea Blaylock

Ball State University

Introduction

To understand spiritual learning, one must first define two terms: spirituality and religion. Spirituality promotes self-awareness as well as self-esteem and this can contribute positive factors to the learning experience. Spirituality transcends the religious beliefs to provide purpose and meaning to life. On the other hand, religion is the entire collection of beliefs, values, and practices that one group holds as sacred and true. How this impacts spiritual learning is that a person’s religious beliefs explain how they fit into this world and how we should act while we are here on Earth. We find purpose and wholeness through our religious beliefs which help us make the necessary connections with the journey to spiritual learning. The purpose of this literature review is to define spirituality and how it affects the adult learner in education. In so doing, I will introduce service learning, health sciences, and informal education as a ways to include spiritual learning in adult education.

General Themes

Spirituality and the Adult Learner

The basic human condition for all people is spiritual, whether you are religious or not. Generally, spirituality is about an individual’s personal experience with the sacred. These experiences take us on a journey toward wholeness. On the other hand, religion, is about an organized community of faith, with an official creed, and codes of regulatory behavior. (Tisdell 2008) Adult learners bring these personal, spiritual experiences to the classroom. Many of these spiritual experiences are lived out in the form of prayer, meditation, and experiences of wholeness. Needless to say, that these moments happen all the time.

In more recent years, spirituality influences in adult education have been more explicit that implicit. This is mainly due to more adult educators have had careers in ministry.  However, we still need to be careful as many educating in secular places emphasize “separation of church and state”. (Tisdell 2008) Educators do not need to necessarily discuss it directly in classes or learning activities. One can ask learners about the experience of a shimmering moment in their lives, relative to a particular topic, and then explore what was so significant about the experience. (Tisdell 2008) We must not forget that meditation, prayer, etc. are not the only ways people make spiritual connections. Tisdell indicates “The ability to create, imagine, and come to further insight through symbol, metaphor, and art is part of the experience of being human”. (p.34) Using these in the educational process will allow learners to connect spiritually as they work to create change. After all, our purpose as educators is to facilitate and nurture the learning environment.

Spiritual Learning in Service Learning

Service-learning is an important, effective vehicle to encourage the spiritual development of young people and adults.  Through higher education, service learning has been the catalyst used to promote academic growth and civic engagement. Many scholars have come to realize over time, students gain and apply knowledge from service-learning, they realize a deeper kind of learning. As students participate in service learning they begin to develop a sense of purpose and meaning to life. These individuals become aware of “something bigger”—not only bigger than earning a grade or meeting the instructional objectives of a course—but something bigger than their sense of self. (Welsh 612)

Louie-Badua states that the three important spiritual aspects to service learning are:

·       Experiencing a sense of interconnectedness with others and the environment

·       Opening your heart to those around you, including those you have previously thought to be other”

·       Reflecting that expands self-inquiry and knowledge about one’s background, values, purpose, and meaning

As educators, we must realize service-learning can offer new directions for youth and adult development as it certainly changes a person’s life.

Spiritual Learning in Health Sciences

When we discuss spiritual learning it is important to understand the students’ spiritual well-being. If we recognize that students had different spiritual needs at different times in their training, educational interventions could be devised to address directly the students at the particular point in their training. (Schonfeld 2014) For health sciences, they designed a course to improve students’ clinical skills in assessing and addressing patients’ spiritual needs. In health sciences, they have made the case for the necessary inclusion of spirituality in the delivery of patient care, as well as how this is a central feature of the provider–patient relationship. (Schonfeld p. 87)  This particular course that was reviewed contained elements where the students had to evaluate their own spirituality. Students kept a personal spiritual profile, spiritual blog, and reflection paper. The course was given as a capstone project in a formal education environment.

Spiritual Leaning in Informal Education

Adults can learn through formal and/or informal education. Informal education is education that is learned outside of standard school setting, in after-school programs, community-based organizations, museums, libraries, or at home. English contends that informal learning can foster a strong sense of self, care, concern, and outreach to others, and the continuous construction of meaning and knowledge. (English, p.30) Adults learn through interactions with one another, especially from those who we support and have deep relationships. Relationships helps develop spirituality and provide us with a deep strong sense of self. Care, concern, and outreach to others are integral aspects of authentic spirituality. When we reached the realization that life is greater than our sphere of influence we get the opportunity to find relevance and meaning, to be part of something beyond ourselves, is deeply spiritual.

As adult educators if we promote informal learning strategies into our processes it will increase opportunities for spiritual growth for our students. Through mentorship we establish a relationship with another person with the potential for them to be and to becoming. Mentoring can help someone realize their life aspirations. Self-directed learning (SDL) can be a spiritual experience. SDL is concerned with increasing self-understanding and awareness, which are dimensions of a relevant and growing spirituality that occurs in relationship with others. (English 2000) For adult educators, dialogue holds numerous possibilities for supporting spiritual development and learning. Usually a dialogue happens when two or more people engage in conversation with each other. However, the type of dialogue that is relevant to spiritual development or learning happens when there is an exchange of ideas or opinions on a particular issue, especially a political or religious issue that make interpersonal connections and interchanges between the two or more people.

Implications for Application

Service learning has been neglected for the young generations and college adults. Educators need to have intentional discussions and reflection activities that can be employed before, during, and after any type of service activities, such as alternative spring break or other immersion experiences that reflect and address the specific space students may find themselves in as their spirituality continues to develop during the college experience. (Welsh p.625) Adult educators can initiate mentorship structures in their places of practice, and they can encourage individuals to mentor, to pass on their knowledge, skills, and attitudes to mentees and instill in them the social values of the field. In regards to self-directed learners, the adult educator can promote relationship building among learners and between learners and educators. It is difficult to do this with self-directed learners. The primary focus should be on maintaining connections through the use of technology like email, Facebook, Twitter, text messages, etc. In informal learning, dialogue should be meaningful. Educators need to provide a safe place/space that encourages participation.

Reflection

The topic that was of most interest to me regarding spiritual learning is mentoring and service learning. I am a firm believer of “paying it forward. Mentoring gives you the opportunity to help others learn, grow and become more effective. During my tenure process, my mentor had been with the institution for 30 years. I still appreciate the time that she spent with me, the relationship that I still have with her today, and the opportunity to learn so much about how to be an academic professional. Service learning is an excellent way for students to get out of their everyday self and experience different environments and cultures. I still remember my service learning project where I tutored 6-8 grades students in science, math, and reading. I did not realize it until the end of my assignment, the bond that I had created with these students.

For this project, it was difficult for me to manage my time. I have learned that it is better to start you assignments early and do them a little at a time. I overestimated the time that I had to complete this project. I do however, like working with my group. There are several members of our group that are diligent with their assignments and I need to learn from them.

Table 1: Literature Review

	Main Idea of Literature	Application
Spirituality and the Adult Learner	Spirituality is a part of the journey for adult learners towards purpose and wholeness	Educators can encourage students to engage discussions that involve their spiritual experiences
Spiritual Learning in Service Learning	Service learning can be used as an effective way to incorporate spiritual learning in the classroom.	Service learning can be included as a component to individualized or student group coursework.
Spiritual Learning in Health Sciences	Understanding student’s spiritual well-being is important to how they learn.	Spiritual learning can be used as a part of course curriculum and training.
Spiritual Leaning in Informal Education	Informal education is an excellent resource for spiritual development of adults.	Three ways of informal education that promote and enhance spiritual learning are mentoring, self-directed learning, and dialogue.

References

Bellous, J. E., & Csinos, D. M. (2009). Spiritual styles: creating an environment to nurture spiritual wholeness. International Journal of Children's Spirituality, 14(3), 213-224. doi:10.1080/13644360903086471

English, L. M. (2000). Spiritual Dimensions of Informal Learning. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 2000(85), 29.

Fenwick, T., & English, L. (2004). Dimensions of Spirituality: A Framework for Adult Educators. Journal of Adult Theological Education J. Adult Theol. Educ.,1(1), 49-64. doi: 10.1558/jate.1.1.49.36052

Louie-Badua, L. J., & Wolf, M. (2008). The spiritual nature of service-learning. New Directions for Youth Development, 2008(118), 91-95. doi:10.1002/yd.260

Schonfeld, T. L., Schmid, K. K., & Boucher-Payne, D. (2014). Incorporating Spirituality into Health Sciences Education. Journal of Religion and Health J Relig Health, 55(1), 85-96.

Tisdell, E. J. (2008). Spirituality and adult learning. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 2008(119), 27-36. doi:10.1002/ace.303

Welch, M., & Koth, K. (2013). A Metatheory of Spiritual Formation through Service-Learning in Higher Education. Journal of College Student Development, 54(6), 612-627. doi:10.1353/csd.2013.0089

Tami's Literature Review

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A Literature Review of Spiritual Learning in Adult Education

Tami Grandstaff-Chamberlain

Ball State University

EDAC 634 – The Adult as a Learner

Abstract

The evolution of Spiritual Learning is a growing social science phenomenon which is now recognized and validated by interdisciplinary fields as becoming more important as a means by which to develop high level skills toward achieving healing from grief or trauma, as well as development of exemplary character, and codes of behavior. While the search for the sacred can provide measures of hope and resilience, it can ultimately inspire an evolution toward pursuits of social justice. A national suicide epidemic reveals statistics that show one Veteran per hour succeeds in the attempt to take his own life. This is a wake-up call to take necessary action to find social justice for the very people that protect this great nation. It is a moral consciousness issue which requires solution. A system of resilience to counter this dilemma must be developed. Through spiritual learning, a deeper wisdom can be revealed. We, as adult and community educators, can facilitate the development of methods toward achieving a better life experience, with particular attention devoted to service members and their families in dealing with traumatic grief as a result of living through experiences beyond the realm of what is considered “normal” and of such a magnitude, that solution appears beyond reach, leaving an individual struggling with hopelessness, yet feeling helpless to effectuate change within one’s own life. Spiritual learning helps make sense of circumstances whose reach is seemingly beyond our control and may be particularly beneficial as a means toward program planning to foster the resilience necessary to heal from trauma.  How do we foster a climate that is truly supportive and more than a mere show of “empty” support?  We foster that climate by educating the public to appreciate the soldier and his military family, providing a sense of belonging in the place of isolation, while equipping our personnel with resiliency skills, one of which is spiritual learning.  We provide this learning to every civil servant working in a professional field which has the potential for exposure to trauma to effectively cope with hauntings of overwhelmingly traumatic experiences. 

A Literature Review of Spiritual Learning in Adult Education

            In order to design a program based upon Spiritual learning, an examination of related materials and in-depth review helped to establish direction. As applied to content, spiritual learning can be an effective tool to develop resiliency for those whose career paths have led them to the front lines on the battlefield, in crises situations on the home front, or in emergency services. Our military, police and firemen, as well as emergency medical providers, have careers that repeatedly expose them to extremely traumatic events. These events may present with the need to develop coping measures beyond that which are considered “normal” stressors of life experiences. Spiritual learning can have a different meaning to each individual, and there is no single, absolute, or correct way by which to conduct a search for meaning making. Many military and civil service careers, such as police, firefighters, and EMS may be exposed to traumatic circumstances resulting in lasting psychological and physical scars, some of which are not only stigmatized, but may take time to reveal the lasting effects, thus damaging the quality of life.  Truth be told, on the other side of the coin is the aftermath, borne solely by the individual, and oftentimes beyond the realm of human understanding,  Left to his own devices, there are few means by which to cope. Other traumatic events, including loss, or events beyond the individual’s control, can include loss to death, serious illness, or birth of a child with special needs are health events that can also be considered.

General Themes

Theme 1

            Spiritual learning can be designed to encourage healing in those who experience a high degree of traumatization, and through the analysis of spiritual learning as a lens by which to establish the framework of program design to establish a model toward development of resilience encouraging healing processes.  Spiritual learning can be an intervention strategy to provide people with tools to deal with great challenge. The establishment of a Resiliency Plan is intended to champion for those who protect our freedoms, our security, and our national and local well-being by developing a means by which to provide a sense of hope and give meaning to life events considered tragic. It is intended to become a model to foster resilience and promote public and national awareness of those who bear the burdens of battle to protect our country, our freedoms and our constitutional rights, as well as our overall well-being. Spirit and Soul becomes wounded when made to endure and suffer irreversible life events. By providing a means by which to establish a knowledge base of care, Military personnel, their families, and First Responders and their families, can be provided effective services which can also facilitate the guidance of policy decision development. Our motivation for this study can be conveyed in the form of a question, “How do we effectuate healing?” in a social and behavioral context.

Spirituality by Definition

            By definition, spirituality is an individual relationship with a power greater than self, considered a holy and faithful connection with that which is sacred (Oman and Thoresen, 2003).  Thoresen and Harris (2002) provide a more malleable definition of spirituality, suggesting that developing spirituality involves not only seeking a connection to something greater than just oneself, but providing a sense of divinity or holiness.  Hill, et al. (2000) offers up the following definition: “[Spirituality involves] the feelings, thoughts, experiences, and behaviors that arise from a search for the sacred.  The “sacred” refers to a Divine Being or Ultimate Truth as perceived by the individual. There is agreement among the authors that identity, belonging, meaning, health and wellness can also be cultivated, as well as seeking a greater cause of social justice, as exemplified through the lives of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King, who represent examples of hope.

Why Does It Matter?

            The importance of resiliency and post-traumatic growth is fast becoming recognized as growing numbers of military personnel, their families, and civil servants experience high degrees of stress in larger numbers, which is contributing to a decline in mental and physical health and well-being. “The annual cost to society of anxiety disorders is estimated to be significantly over $42.3 billion, often due to misdiagnosis and under-treatment. This includes psychiatric and non-psychiatric medical treatment costs, indirect workplace costs, mortality costs, and prescription drug costs” (Rosenthal, 2014). It has long been recognized that there has been tremendous challenge in finding solution as evidenced by homelessness, mental health issues, and suicide rates faced by our country’s military personnel upon departure from their military duty. Existing studies indicate that rating scales have been used to show that measures can be given to life events (Leary, 1980). An unexpected loss is more difficult to accept. When a cluster of events occurs, there is great risk of crises and social stress resulting in health effects over time.  While tracking life patterns, phenomenon can be traced indicating that stress can create an onset of illness.  The government and public sector can help to mitigate the damage by providing a social support network.

 Physiology of Trauma

Methodology of Spiritual Learning as Coping Mechanism

Theme 2

            There is a physiological component to stress-related trauma, whereby chronic and acute physical reactions continue as if the events were still occurring. This repeated strain comes in the form of anxiety, causing a continuous state of wear and tear on the internal organs.  Due to trauma, the parasympathetic system is so consistently alarmed that it may remain in a hyper-vigilant state, causing excessive hormonal production, over-taxing the many internal systems of our bodies (Kudlick, 2013). 

            Spiritual learning may introduce a component of healing that is now being considered by national agencies such as the NIH and AMA to prevent stress-related illnesses, such as hypertension, anxiety and cancer (Hill and Ziegahn, 2010; Zerhouni, E., 2003).  English (2005a) mentions the spiritual practices of yoga, tai-chi and mindfulness meditation as part of the healing journey.

            Dr. Gabor Mate emphasizes social engagement as an emotional contact essential for health.  The mode when we feel safe allows us to access and reveal our sense of sadness.  Collaborative attachment dynamics draw us together in groups. Dr. Mate explains that we act out that which we cannot speak.  By developing the means to facilitate social support, we mitigate the biological effect of the traumatic event.  The biology of trauma (of loss) can be healed through relationship with the right supports in place.  When we have consciousness of our issues, conditions of society can facilitate a network of attachment-oriented people that allows for “safe-context” by which to prevent and cure “dis” –ease.  PTS(D) does not mean a person is flawed or damaged; it means they have endured the greatest of challenges beyond the magnitude of understanding.  Bandura says we have the power to change behavior (1977).

Continuity of Care

Theme 3 

            With a proven correlation between the magnitude of life stressors and the onset of psychophysiological illness, it becomes all the more evident that these populations are vulnerable to the aftermath of traumatic life events who could benefit greatly by a social support network in both military and civilian environments. Without a safe opportunity to process it, grief can be delayed and evolve further into complicated or traumatic grief.  Dr. Kleykamp from the University of Maryland points out that there is a great deal of support within the military system that provides a safety net for military families. When they experience transition, outside the military, they lose many of those supports. When people who lose a family member through loss of life separate from the Army family by leaving, what, if any, responsibility is there for the Department of Defense to think about family members’ preparation for that transition.  She poses the question, “Who is transitioning into what?” (Forum on Health & National Security, 2014).

            There is minimal continuum of care provided although different trajectories of bereavement and grief may not reveal themselves for several years. There has been little to no safety net established to help with the emotional transition between trauma and assimilation from military duty into the normalcy of civilian life.

            Spiritual learning is synonymous with resiliency.  By widening the scope of spiritual learning to include, transformational, experiential and narrative learning, a narrative re-telling provides a channel to de-escalate trauma’s emotional hold on the learner, within the safe environment of a trust circle. 

­­            Oman and Thoresen agree with Walsh (1999) who determined that a belief system not only develops high-level skills which both encourages and imparts wisdom, but has the potential to calm the mind. 

Spiritual Learning and its Application to Trauma

Theme 4

            Adult educators introduce a skillset to include spiritual learning as provisional toward development of resiliency and establishment of coping, as well as companionship.  The counselor aspect of teaching can be instrumental in reaching a broader audience of learners.

                        Oman and Thoresen (2003) pose the question in their research as to whether Spiritual Modeling is the key to Spiritual growth.  Their study indicates that spirituality originates through observing those who live by practicing spirituality as a way of life.  These authors also draw correlations as recognized by the scientific community to create methods of intervention.  Throughout history, people have been encouraged to associate with people who emulate the best possible character and who live wisely.  Spiritual modeling as exemplified through Jesus and Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King (to name a few), capture the essence of those whose lives are worthy of personification, as well as the benefit of the power of companionship.  Models such as these exemplify behaviors to be patterned for successful living and development of quality of character.  Spiritual modeling patterns successful living and development of quality of character from those whose lives were committed to the Spiritual Journey.  According to Oman and Thoresen, practical application of spiritual learning in education, health care, social welfare, and civil democracy, as well as crafting of governmental policy and management of such affairs, holds great promise (Goleman, 1988; Johnston, Sampson, & Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1994; Puchalski & Larson, 1998; Russel, 1998; Wood, 1999).  Rather than a set of religious rules, our researchers indicate there is a valued skillset from which we can benefit in relation to both self-control and wise living, both contributing to a greater supply of inner wisdom (Clements, 2000).  Optimally, a spiritual modeling perspective can be integrated into the interdisciplinary fields of psychology, health, and education to further holistic healing.

Conclusions:  The implications of this review are that spiritual learning methods can be developed and applied to increase a skillset for resiliency. 

            A critical review of the literature would indicate that spiritual learning can become a part of a skillset designed to calm the mind while increasing resiliency.  Generations of the walking wounded have no resolution to events that stretch beyond human psychological understanding.  The implications of these findings indicate that adult and community educators hold important positions to influence social change for populations who are stigmatized by traumatic life events, such as their required participation and involvement in war by the very nature of the job.  As our military fight the battles of the world on our behalf, as well as protect our freedoms and constitutional rights, and our emergency services personnel fight to secure our communities at home, much of society finds these experiences un-relatable, and an awkward relationship is established between society and those who carry these burdens for us.  We can do our part, here on the home front, effectuating positive change in the form of contributing to development of programs that will encourage healing, but also to develop a theory of compassion that can bolster civilian understanding, caring, and gratitude.

            Let all adult educators become aware, that as long as there is war, there will always be either a psychological trauma, a physiological trauma, or both.  As long as there is crime, there will always be risk a Police Officer must take to perform his job.  For every emergency, there is a firemen or EMT who puts his own personal safety at risk to save others.  Repeated exposures to high levels of stress can take many forms, but when the event is over, its effects may be lasting. Our country is a big, awkward community that is slowly beginning to recognize that when carrying an unnatural burden on behalf of our society, there will be consequences which require a system of emotional support.  The acronym PTSD should be perceived by and defined by our country as one in which an individual survived an experience beyond the realm of ordinary understanding and well-being of the human condition.  Its truest meaning is “survivor.”  One of our recent Congressional Medal of Honor recipients expresses that we should drop the “D” because it stigmatizes the soldier.  He shares that PTS is a natural reaction to a traumatic event and to perceive it as a disease only further isolates.  With intention and commitment, adult educators can create a conduit to achieve a universal guiding principle of healing.

            Avenues of recovery and resilience must be made available to establish resources for Wellness as part of a national endeavor to show true support.  Resiliency is a key element in the healing process and it can be logically reasoned that it is crucial to combat the effects of trauma or complicated grief in which we, as educators, can play important roles in minimizing these burdens carried by our warriors, their families, Military and Gold Star Children who lose a parent to combat, and those who protect us in our own communities. 

            Boud, Cohen, and Walker (1993) utilize an Experiential learning Model which emphasizes reflection by returning to the experience, attending to the feelings around the experience and re-evaluating the experience. Tennant and Pogson (1995) viewed experiential learning from four levels of prior, current, new, and learning from experience later adding two additional levels, learning from loss and learning from others’ experience.  Wall and Louchakova (2002) found that a shift in consciousness occurs as a shared pain can provide a unique meaning of oneness that emerges in individuals which assists them in transcending the loss while cultivating a greater sense of self.  For many, the learning from such an experience is lasting and includes the emergence of a significant global compassion.  Boucouvalas and Lawrence (2010) indicate that there has been a shift in perspective indicating that transformative learning which restructures one’s thinking and “being” is now understood as based upon a deeper understanding of fixed habits.  This is important, not only on an individual level, but also societally.  Transpersonal experiences expands one’s consciousness beyond one’s separate sense of self and the ordinary waking state, transpersonal experiences can occur at any level of health or pathology. Transpersonal knowing also includes flashes of insight beyond one’s rational mode, which can manifest in a mystical, visceral, emotional, cognitive, or spiritual sense.  Pain and suffering can trigger transpersonal experiences.  This often leads to greater wisdom. According to Mezirow, transformative learning occurs when one experiences a “disorienting dilemma.”  Our reality is shaken, we are permanently transformed, and we can never return to that which we once were.  Our former ways of viewing the world no longer make sense.  We experience what Mezirow calls a “perspective transformation” (1991. p. 167) through critical reflection, recognizing distortions, and replacing them with more accurate and functional perspectives. 

Reflection

            To improve resiliency, we must address the bio-psychosocial factors to implement structural design that will foster and encourage post-traumatic growth of the individual who experiences stressful tragedy of this magnitude.  We must look to the benefit-finding or meaning making features of resilience.  The national epidemic related to suicide in this country is a moral dilemma.  Quality of life impairment can be improved and managed by a spiritual learning journey which gives meaning to the sacrifice and/or experience, providing hope, inspiration, and skills to guide successful living.  Narrative re-telling can provide a language of loss to express feeling.  Adult educators can help an individual embrace and create a sacred space for healing through the Spiritual Learning Journey while offering balance, kindness, and community connection. 

References

Bandura, A. (1977), Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

English, L.M. (2005a). Historical and contemporary explorations of the social change and spiritual directions of adult education.  Teachers College Record, 107(6), 1169-1192.

Kasworm, C. E., Rose, A. D., & Ross-Gordon, J. M. (2010). Handbook of adult and continuing education. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Kudlick, Katrina. (2013, April 15), PTSD: Interviewees – Vietnam Veterans: Shaun Berry, Donald Steele, Kenneth Boger. [Video file] Retrieved from: ­http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBUjLXtedfc

Leary, Patrick. A Checklist for Life Event Research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, Vol 24, pp. 199-207. Pergamon Press Ltd. 1980. Printed in Great Britain.

Mate, Gabor, M.D. (April, 2012). The Biology of Loss. [Video file] Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytJ13MmgkyM

Oman, D., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). INVITED ESSAY: "Spiritual Modeling: A Key to Spiritual and Religious Growth?" International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 13(3), 149-165. 

Rosenthal, Michelle (2014). Heal My PTSD. Retrieved from: http://healmyptsd.com/education/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-statistics

Zerhouni, E. (2003). The NIH Roadmap. Science, 302, 63-72.